Cherokee Relations with the United States (1785–1838)
From the First Treaty to Removal
The period between 1785 and 1838 marked one of the most transformative and devastating eras in Cherokee history. During these years, the Cherokee Nation entered into multiple treaties with the United States, experienced ongoing frontier warfare, and ultimately faced forced removal from their ancestral lands.
This overview is designed for high school U.S. history students and educators studying early American expansion, Native American policy, and frontier conflict.
The Treaty of Hopewell (1785): A Turning Point
The first official treaty between the Cherokee Nation and the newly formed United States government was signed on November 28, 1785, at Hopewell in South Carolina.
Nearly 1,000 Cherokee representatives attended. U.S. commissioners included:
◾ Benjamin Hawkins
◾ Andrew Pickens
◾ Joseph Martin
◾ Lachlan McIntosh
Key Terms of the Treaty
Established official peace between the Cherokee and the United States
Defined territorial boundaries
Placed the Cherokee under U.S. protection
Recognized tribal land west of newly drawn borders
However, the treaty immediately revealed serious problems.
Major Issues
Approximately 3,000 white settlers were already living on Cherokee land illegally.
State governments (North Carolina and Georgia) protested federal decisions.
Many Cherokee believed their territory was being unfairly reduced.
Although the treaty attempted to prevent further violence, conflict continued almost immediately.
Frontier Violence and the Cumberland Settlements
The late 1700s saw intense fighting along the Tennessee frontier, especially around Nashville (then called Nashborough).
Cherokee groups—especially the Chickamauga faction—alongside Creek and Shawnee allies, carried out raids against frontier settlements. Settlers responded with retaliatory expeditions, often destroying Cherokee towns.
One notable frontier defense occurred in 1792 at Buchanan’s Station, where fewer than twenty defenders held off hundreds of attacking warriors. This battle became famous in Tennessee frontier history.
The conflict was not one-sided. Settler militias also committed violence against peaceful Cherokee towns, sometimes killing chiefs who had come under flags of negotiation.
For students studying this era, it is important to understand that:
◾ Both sides experienced heavy losses.
◾ Federal treaties were often ignored settlers.
State and federal governments frequently disagreed about Native policy.
The Treaty of Holston (1791)
In 1791, a new agreement was negotiated near present-day Knoxville, Tennessee.
Known as the Treaty of Holston, it required the Cherokee to cede additional land in exchange for:
◾ Annual payments (annuities)
◾ Recognition of remaining territory
◾ Promises of peace
The Cherokee later protested the treaty, arguing they had been pressured into signing and that white settlers were already violating the new boundaries.
Despite increased annuity payments, hostilities continued.
Escalation and the Destruction of the Chickamauga Towns (1794)
By the early 1790s, conflict intensified again.
A major turning point came in 1794 when American forces destroyed the Chickamauga towns at Nickajack and Running Water. This campaign effectively ended large-scale Cherokee military resistance in Tennessee.
At the same time, General Anthony Wayne defeated a Native confederacy in the Northwest Territory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. These combined defeats weakened Native resistance across the frontier.
By late 1794, Cherokee leaders agreed to peace negotiations.
Continued Land Cessions: The Treaty of Tellico (1798)
In 1798, another major agreement—commonly called the First Treaty of Tellico—required the Cherokee to surrender additional lands in:
◾ East Tennessee
◾ Western North Carolina
◾ Areas needed to connect settlements road
In return, the United States:
◾ Increased annual payments
◾ Promised protection
◾ Guaranteed remaining Cherokee lands
These guarantees, however, would later be broken.
International Influence and Frontier Politics
During this period:
Spain controlled territory west of the Mississippi.
Britain still influenced Native groups from Canada.
The Creek Nation remained intermittently hostile.
American settlers constantly pushed westward.
Foreign powers sometimes encouraged Native resistance to weaken the United States. Meanwhile, settlers pressured Congress to open more land for expansion.
This tension between federal treaty obligations and settler expansion became a defining feature of U.S.–Native relations.
The End of Warfare — But Not the End of Conflict
By the mid-1790s:
The northern Native confederacy had been defeated.
Spanish and British influence declined.
Major Cherokee military resistance ended.
The Cherokee Nation began focusing on rebuilding and adapting. Over the next decades, Cherokee leaders pursued diplomacy, agriculture, constitutional government, and education.
However, pressure for land continued to grow.
This era of treaties and frontier wars ultimately set the stage for the most tragic chapter in Cherokee history: forced removal in 1838, known as The Trail of Tears.