The Cherokee and the English: Conflict, Alliance, and Survival (1654–1761)

The relationship between the Cherokee and the English colonies was marked shifting alliances, broken promises, cultural misunderstandings, and devastating war. From their first recorded encounter in 1654 through the brutal campaigns of the early 1760s, this period reshaped Cherokee society—and laid the groundwork for the even greater upheavals to come.

First Contact: 1654 and the “Rechahecrians”

The first recorded English contact with the Cherokee occurred in 1654, when Virginia colonists reported an incursion a large group of mountain Indians they called the “Rechahecrians,” likely a corruption of Rickahockan, the name used neighboring Powhatan tribes.

According to colonial accounts, six or seven hundred warriors descended from the mountains and established themselves at the falls of the James River—present-day Richmond. Alarmed and still scarred from their recent war with the Powhatan, Virginia authorities ordered them expelled. A joint force of colonial militia and Pamunkey warriors marched against the newcomers.

The result was disastrous for the Virginians. The Pamunkey chief and many of his men were killed, and the colonists were forced to negotiate peace. The expedition’s commander was disgraced and made to pay the treaty’s costs from his own estate. The causes of the Cherokee incursion remain unclear, but it was likely part of a broader pattern of conflict between mountain and lowland peoples.

Exploration and Early Trade

By the late 17th century, English traders had established regular contact with southern tribes. In 1670, the German traveler John Lederer journeyed from Virginia into the Carolina piedmont and described the Rickahockan as living in the North Carolina mountains. His accounts place them west of the Catawba and Sara tribes.

Lederer also recorded an incident that reveals the volatility of intertribal politics: a delegation of Rickahockan visiting an eastern village was murdered during a dance hosted in their honor.

Meanwhile, English colonial expansion continued. South Carolina was permanently settled in 1670, and 1690 traders such as Cornelius Dougherty were living among the Cherokee. Trade—particularly in deerskins—became the foundation of Anglo-Cherokee relations.

Slavery, Exploitation, and Rising Tensions

By the 1690s, Cherokee leaders were traveling to Charleston seeking alliances and protection. In 1693, chiefs appealed to colonial authorities for help after neighboring tribes—encouraged and supplied colonists—raided Cherokee towns and sold captives into slavery.

The problem was systemic. In 1705, South Carolina’s governor was accused of authorizing raids on Indian communities to capture slaves for private profit. Critics warned such policies would provoke a devastating Indian war. They were right.

The Yamassee War (1715)

In 1715, a broad coalition of tribes—including the Cherokee—rose against South Carolina in what became known as the Yamassee War. Coordinated attacks nearly destroyed the colony.

Though the English eventually prevailed, the war transformed regional politics. It forced South Carolina to reform its Indian trade system and pursue more formal treaties with powerful tribes like the Cherokee.

Treaties and the Rise of a “Head Chief”

In 1721, Governor Francis Nicholson convened Cherokee leaders to formalize relations. Thirty-seven towns were represented. The treaty regulated trade, established a boundary line, and—significantly—recognized a single “head chief” empowered to deal with colonial authorities.

This marked a turning point. The Cherokee, traditionally governed town-based councils, were increasingly forced to conform to European political expectations. Land cessions began. Over the next century, nearly all Cherokee territory would be signed away.

Imperial Rivalry: French vs. British

The Cherokee now found themselves caught in a larger imperial contest. The French had established a foothold on the Gulf Coast in 1699 and built Fort Toulouse in 1714 near present-day Montgomery, Alabama. From there, they cultivated alliances across the Southeast.

British officials worried that thousands of Native warriors had shifted to French influence. Only the Cherokee were still considered reliably pro-British—and even that loyalty was fragile.

In 1730, Sir Alexander Cuming traveled to the Cherokee town of Nequassee (modern Franklin, North Carolina). Through bold diplomacy, he secured a pledge of loyalty to the British Crown. Seven Cherokee chiefs sailed to London, where they met King George II and formally affirmed alliance.

The pageantry was impressive—but the deeper tensions remained unresolved.

Catastrophe: The Smallpox Epidemic

In 1738–1739, smallpox swept through Cherokee towns, likely introduced via slave ships. The consequences were catastrophic. Contemporary observers estimated that nearly half the population died.

Lacking immunity and unfamiliar with the disease, Cherokee healers resorted to traditional cold-water immersion—tragically ineffective against smallpox. Some warriors, disfigured and despairing, took their own lives.

The epidemic permanently weakened the Nation at a time when colonial expansion was accelerating.

The French and Indian War

Hostilities between Britain and France erupted in North America in 1754, later known as the French and Indian War. Although the Cherokee formally allied with the British, many preferred French diplomacy, which they viewed as more respectful and less encroaching.

British policy deepened Cherokee suspicion. Forts were built in Cherokee territory—Fort Prince George near Keowee and Fort Loudoun deep in the Overhill towns. While framed as protective, these forts symbolized intrusion.

Major Andrew Lewis, involved in building Fort Loudoun, came to distrust Cherokee intentions. At the same time, Cherokee warriors assisting British campaigns were treated dismissively colonial troops.

A Spark Ignites War

In 1756, after a failed joint expedition against the Shawnee, returning Cherokee warriors—angry and unpaid—appropriated horses from Virginia settlers as compensation for losses. Frontiersmen retaliated, killing between a dozen and forty Cherokee, including prominent leaders.

Attempts at redress through colonial governments failed. Grief turned to fury.

In 1759, Governor Lyttelton of South Carolina escalated tensions demanding the surrender of Cherokee leaders for execution. When a peace delegation arrived in Charleston, he imprisoned them instead.

The breaking point came in February 1760, when Cherokee leader Oconostota orchestrated the killing of the commander of Fort Prince George. In retaliation, British soldiers murdered the imprisoned Cherokee hostages.

Full-scale war followed.

The Destruction of Cherokee Towns

British forces responded with overwhelming force. In 1760, Colonel Archibald Montgomery destroyed Lower Cherokee towns, burning homes and crops. Though checked in the Middle towns, the damage was severe.

Fort Loudoun eventually surrendered to Cherokee forces—but when hidden ammunition was discovered, enraged warriors attacked the withdrawing garrison, killing many soldiers. The war intensified.

In 1761, Colonel James Grant led 2,600 troops into Cherokee country. Systematically, they destroyed fifteen Middle Towns, burned fields and granaries, and drove survivors into the mountains. The campaign effectively crushed Cherokee resistance.

Aftermath

By 1763, France had been eliminated from North America. But for the Cherokee, the greater struggle was just beginning.

The wars of this era left towns in ashes, populations reduced, and political autonomy eroded. Once a powerful and independent mountain nation, the Cherokee now faced a relentless colonial frontier pushing steadily westward.

Within a generation, new treaties—and new betrayals—would accelerate the loss of their homeland.